About Zambia

{zam'-bee-uh}
The Republic of Zambia is a landlocked country of south central Africa, bordered on the south by Zimbabwe and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia, on the southeast by Mozambique, on the east by Malawi, on the northeast by Tanzania, on the north and west by Zaire, and on the west by Angola. Once the British colony of Northern Rhodesia, Zambia gained its independence in 1974. For 27 years Zambia was a one-party state led by Kenneth D. Kaunda. In 1991, after multipartyism was legalized, there was a peaceful shift of power to a new party and a new leader. This peaceful transition, hailed as a significant development for democracy in African politics, was somewhat tarnished by subsequent developments.

The land surface of Zambia consists of a series of gently undulating plateaus broken by isolated low mountain ranges. The highest elevations are found in the Malinga Hills near the Malawi border, which reach 2,164 m (7,100 ft); the lowest are in the southeast. The average elevation is about 900-1,500 m (3,000-5,000 ft). The main plateau areas have sandy clay soils of marginal agricultural value. These soils become more fertile in the lower plateau region. The river valleys are covered with fertile alluvial soils. Vegetation ranges from forest to open grassland. The plateau areas are characterized by wooded savanna and tall grasses, whereas in the river valleys the mopani tree is predominant.
Zambia is dominated by a tropical savanna climate. Most of the country has a single rainy season with a January maximum. The rains last from about 190 days in the north to fewer than 120 days in the south. Precipitation in the northern half of the country averages 1,219 mm (48 in) and in the southern half 838 mm (33 in) per year. Temperatures range from 16 degrees to 27 degrees C (60 degrees to 80 degrees F) in the cool season (May to August) and from 28 degrees to 32 degrees C (82 degrees to 90 degrees F) in the hot season (August to November).
Zambia's rivers are concentrated in two systems. In the north the major rivers are the Chambeshi and the Luapula, which rises in Lake Bangweulu. They drain eventually into the Congo River. In the south the Zambezi River and its tributaries form the major river system. Lake Tanganyika straddles Zambia's northern boundary.
Zambia has a wealth of mineral resources, especially copper, lead, zinc, and coal. The Copperbelt, where most mining takes place, lies north of the capital city of Lusaka along the Zairian border. The major rivers have valuable potential for hydroelectric power.

Zambia's population is ethnically diverse. Most of the people are of Bantu origin (including Bemba, Tonga, Malawi, Lozi, and Lunda), although San and Twa live in some areas. The national language is English, which also serves as the lingua franca, but several other major language groups are used. About 72% of Zambia's population are Christian or combine Christianity with traditional African beliefs. Most of the remainder practice traditional African religions, with small Hindu and Muslim minorities.
Zambia has one of the highest rates of population growth in the world. Birthrates are high (51 per 1,000 in 1985-90), 50% of women are married by the age of 20, and approximately 50% of the population is below the age of 50. Fertility rates vary between provinces and between urban and rural areas. Death rates have fallen rapidly from 30 per 1,000 in 1950 to 13 per 1,000 in 1990. The percentage of the population living in urban areas is increasing, reflecting the high rate of rural-to-urban migration. Lusaka is the largest city. Other major urban centers are the Copperbelt cities of Kitwe and Ndola.
Rapid population growth has severely strained educational and health-care facilities. Despite expansion at the primary and secondary levels, educational improvement is limited by inadequate facilities, insufficient teachers, and a scarcity of financial resources. Recent educational reforms target the expansion of technical schools and "science" in the curriculum. The country has two institutions of higher learning--the University of Zambia at Lusaka, founded in 1965, and the Copperbelt University at Kitwe, which is to be transferred to Ndola. Health-care facilities, especially in rural areas, remain inadequate, and access to physicians is limited. In 1990 free medical care in hospitals was abolished. Major medical problems include chronic illnesses such as malaria, schistosomiasis, and dietary insufficiency as well as acute diseases such as measles, typhoid, dysentery, and cholera. A decaying infrastructure fosters the spread of disease; in 1992, for example, a cholera epidemic in Kitwe was blamed on broken equipment in sewage treatment and water plants and a lack of chlorine.

Economic development since the early 20th century has been based on copper mining. Zambia produces about 7% of the world's copper, ranking fifth in the world, as well as sizable amounts of lead, zinc, cobalt, phosphates, and other minerals. Small amounts of coal are also mined. The dependence on copper, which contributed 86% of export earnings in 1990, has left Zambia dangerously vulnerable. Falling copper prices since 1975 have reduced export income and lessened Zambia's ability to service its large foreign debt. In addition, Zambia's commercially recoverable copper reserves are expected to be nearly exhausted by the year 2000.
To diversify the economy and reduce food imports, the government has outlined four priority areas of investment eligible for incentives: agriculture, tourism, import substitution, and nontraditional exports. Perhaps the greatest potential for resource development is in agriculture and tourism. Only 7% of the land is under cultivation. A 1992 land use survey identified fallow land that would be confiscated and sold if not cleared within 18 months. In addition, virgin bush along the Tazara railway is targeted for sale to private investors.
Maize, cassava, sorghum, finger and bullrush millet, peanuts, and beans are the principal staple crops. Commercial crops are maize, groundnuts, tobacco, vegetables, fruit, cotton, and sugarcane. Sugarcane plantations on irrigated land at Mazabuka in the south make Zambia self-sufficient in sugar. Wheat flour is imported mainly for consumption in urban areas. Cattle are raised near the population centers and along the line of the railway, especially in the south. Because of the tsetse fly, cattle raising is restricted in northeastern Zambia.
Tourism receipts for international visitors in 1989 were $5 billion. Tourism is in an early stage of development, however, and considerable potential for foreign exchange earnings exists at the country's game parks (especially South Luangwa Valley) and at Victoria Falls, the world's widest waterfalls.
Although Zambia is landlocked, fishing is an important activity in the large lakes and rivers and provides a useful source of protein. The remoteness of the fisheries and inadequate transportation and storage facilities hamper the development of a commercial fishing industry. Forestry has some potential for development with careful management, as 27% of the land area is forested.
Manufacturing has been promoted through the Industrial Development Corporation on a 51% government-49% private-sector ownership plan that encompasses the copper mines and smelters, iron and steel mills, fertilizer plants, a cobalt refinery, and brick factories. Manufactured goods include processed foodstuffs and various consumer goods. Privatization of Zambia's state-owned economic structure is an integral part of the country's new policy. The government plans to unbundle state-owned properties, price them realistically, and offer enhanced investment incentives, including guarantees allowing profits to be taken out of the country and protection against expropriation.
Hydroelectricity is produced at the huge Kariba Dam on the Zambezi; on the Kafue River; and at Victoria Falls. Coal-produced electricity is important in the Copperbelt.
Railroads are the chief means of transporting landlocked Zambia's products to the sea. To lessen dependence on South African ports, a rail link from the Copperbelt through Tanzania to the sea was completed in 1976 with Chinese aid.

The constitution of 1973 declared Zambia a republic, with a president and a unicameral legislature elected to 5-year terms. The 1973 constitution was amended in December 1990 to permit multiple political parties. A multiparty constitution adopted in 1991 restricts the president to two 5-year terms and abolishes the office of prime minister; the president appoints the cabinet from among the 150 members of the National Assembly. Both the president and members of the legislature are elected by direct popular vote to 5-year terms.

In 1851, David Livingstone crossed the Zambezi River from the south and spent the next 20 years exploring what is now Zambia. In the late 19th century the British South Africa Company began making treaties with the local chiefs in what was then known as Northern Rhodesia. Following the 1924 British administrative takeover of the region and the discovery of copper during the late 1920s, many Europeans immigrated to the area.
In 1953, Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), and Nyasaland (now Malawi) were brought together by the British into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. This federation lasted until 1962, when Nyasaland pulled out, followed by Northern Rhodesia in 1963. Independence for Zambia followed on Oct. 24, 1964. Relations with Southern Rhodesia became strained after the 1965 unilateral declaration of independence by the white minority government there, and Zambia's flow of goods through Rhodesia was interrupted. Falling copper prices, a huge foreign debt, and neglect of the agricultural sector meant that Zambia's economic problems did not end when Rhodesia gained independence as Zimbabwe in 1980. Kenneth D. Kaunda, who had served as Zambia's president since independence, was a leading African diplomat praised abroad for his antiapartheid stance. He allowed black nationalists seeking to end white rule in Namibia and South Africa to set up bases in Zambia despite cross-border attacks by South African security forces. Kaunda's popularity at home, however, declined with the standard of living; between 1980 and 1990, the country's average per-capita income declined by 4.9% a year. Economic austerity measures imposed at the insistence of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) raised prices for many necessities and led to riots in 1986 and 1990. As demands for political and economic reform mounted, Kaunda legalized multiple political parties in December 1990.
Multiparty elections--Zambia's first in nearly 20 years--were held in 1991. Kaunda and the ruling United National Independence party (UNIP) were resoundingly defeated by Frederick Chiluba and his Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) in elections that foreign observers reported were fairly conducted. The MMD captured 124 out of 150 legislative seats, and Chiluba became president on Nov. 2, 1991. Chiluba, who lifted a 27-year state of emergency imposed in 1964 to counter threats to national security from white-ruled Rhodesia, inherited a $7.5 billion international debt and poor relations with international donors. He restored relations with the World Bank and the IMF and cut all subsidies, even on staple foods like maize meal. Rising food prices, inflation (120% in 1993), job losses in the civil service (and potential job losses as state companies are sold), labor strikes, drought, and political violence all threatened the new democracy as did Chiluba's reinstatement of the state of emergency in March 1993 in response to an alleged coup plot by a UNIP faction. Kaunda emerged from retirement and was reelected UNIP leader in June 1995. After the constitution was amended to bar Kaunda from running for president, UNIP boycotted the November 1996 elections, which were won by Chiluba. Zambia may be a model for democratic and peaceful political transition, free enterprise, and privatization, but the country still has many social and economic problems that need to be solved.
John W. Snaden
Reviewed by Barbara Anne Carmichael
Bibliography: Achola, P. P., Implementing Educational Policies in Zambia (1992); Burdette, M., Zambia: Between Two Worlds (1988); Channock, M., Law, Custom, and Social Order: The Colonial Experience in Malawi and Zambia (1985); Gann, L. H., The Birth of a Plural Society (1968; repr. 1982); Hamalengwa, M., Class Struggles in Zambia, 1889-1989, and the Fall of Kenneth Kaunda, 1990-1991 (1992); Kaplan, I., ed., Zambia (1989); Macpherson, F., Anatomy of a Conquest (1982); Ollawa, P. E., Participatory Democracy in Zambia (1985; repr. 1990); Pottier, J., Migrants No More (1988); Roberts, A., A History of Zambia (1976); Tordoff, W., Administration in Zambia (1981); Vaughan, M., and Moore, A., Cutting Down the Trees: Agricultural Change, Anthropology and History in Zambia, 1890-1990 (1993; repr. 1994); Vaughan, R., Zambia (1992); Turok, B., Mixed Economy in Focus (1989); Woldring, K., ed., Beyond Political Independence (1985).

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